Script Raccoon

Introduction

Group theory is a fascinating branch of pure mathematics, which allows us to understand arithmetical operations, solutions of algebraic equations, symmetries of geometric objects, cryptographic algorithms, and much more.

This series of posts is about modeling group theory within TypeScript.

In Part 1 we already developed a generic class Group<X> which models finite groups whose elements are of type X. Their underlying sets are instances of a generic class SetWithEquality<X>, which are like sets in TypeScript but with a custom notion of equality of their elements. If you haven't read that post, please check it out first.

In Part 1, we have only seen one specific example of a group in TypeScript. This part will be about implementing further examples of groups. We will look at cyclic groups, symmetric groups, the Klein Four-Group and the General linear group.

All of the code below can be found on GitHub.

Finite cyclic groups

Modulo arithmetic

Before giving the definition, let me tell you that you already know an example of a finite cyclic group. When it is 11 o'clock, and we wait 3 hours, it is 2 o'clock. This is because gives the remainder when divided by :

And when it is 2 o'clock, what time was it 5 hours before? The answer is 9 o'clock because leaves the remainder when divided by :

When we calculate with hours, we calculate inside of the group , defined below in a more general fashion.

Let be a positive integer. There is a group of order (that means, with elements) constructed as follows:

The underlying set consists of the numbers

We take the group operations inherited from the additive group but calculate the result modulo . This means that the composition of and is the remainder of divided by . The inverse of is the remainder of divided by . This works since the remainder is always in the list .

And it can be simplified even further: If , then the composition of is just . Otherwise, it is . The inverse of is , and for the inverse of is .

Implementation of the cyclic group

The next step is to define the group (pronounced Z modulo n) with our group class. Let us first define a utility function that produces the list of numbers .

function interval(n: number): number[] {
	return new Array(n).fill(0).map((_, i) => i);
}

Finally:

function additiveGroupModulo(n: number): Group<number> | undefined {
	// TODO: error handling

	return new Group<number>({
		set: new SetWithEquality(interval(n)),
		unit: 0,
		inverse: (a) => (a === 0 ? 0 : n - a),
		compose: (a, b) => (a + b >= n ? a + b - n : a + b),
	});
}

Since invalid arguments may be passed to the function, we need to add some error handling:

if (n <= 0) {
	console.error("Error: Only positive numbers are allowed for Z/nZ");
	return undefined;
}

if (n != Math.ceil(n)) {
	console.error("Error: Only whole numbers are allowed for Z/nZ");
	return undefined;
}

Let us test this by looking at the group :

const Zmod7 = additiveGroupModulo(7)!;
console.assert(Zmod7.isGroup);
console.assert(Zmod7.order === 7);
console.assert(Zmod7.compose(5, 3) === 1);
console.assert(Zmod7.isCommutative);

There are more conceptual constructions of the group (with quotient groups), but the one above is easier to implement in our setup. There is also an infinite cyclic group, , but as already explained in Part 1, we cannot model it in TypeScript.

Symmetric groups

Permutations

For every set , there is a group that consists of all the bijective functions . A function is bijective if it has an inverse function. This essentially means that just permutes or reorders the elements of .

The group composition of two bijective functions , is, well, their composition:

This is why it was called like that in the definition of a group! The inverse is, well, the inverse function. The unit is the identity function which maps every element to . It is trivial to check that the group axioms are satisfied.

This is the symmetric group on . If is a finite set with elements, it is usually denoted by . Since we like to start counting with , it is useful to let

In mathematics, is more common. But in our case, a function can just be seen as an array of length which consists of integers smaller than . The condition that is bijective means that all integers smaller than appear exactly once.

For example, consists of the following six permutations, written as arrays:

How do we generate all permutations?

The idea is to do this recursively. For , there is a unique permutation, the empty array. Otherwise, assume that we know all the permutations of the numbers . They are seen as arrays of length . Then, take any of the spots and insert there. This yields a permutation of the numbers , and they all arise this way.

For example, has exactly two permutations, and . The elements of above result from these by inserting anywhere.

Implementation of the symmetric group

We are now able to write a recursive function that generates all permutations of the numbers .

type permutation = number[];

function listOfPermutations(n: number): permutation[] | undefined {
	// TODO: error handling

	if (n == 0) {
		return [[]];
	}

	const list = listOfPermutations(n - 1);
	if (!list) return undefined;

	const result: permutation[] = [];

	for (const perm of list) {
		for (let index = 0; index < n; index++) {
			result.push([
				...perm.slice(0, index),
				n - 1,
				...perm.slice(index, perm.length),
			]);
		}
	}
	return result;
}

Again, we need to add some error handling:

if (n < 0) {
	console.error(
		"Error: Only non-negative numbers are allowed for list of permutations",
	);
	return undefined;
}
if (n != Math.ceil(n)) {
	console.error(
		"Error: Only whole numbers are allowed for list of permutations",
	);
	return undefined;
}

Next, we implement the symmetric group on elements. Since its underlying set consists of elements of type permutation, we will use the corresponding type for our group class. We also use the function equalTuples from Part 1 which implements the "correct" notion of equality for tuples. Otherwise, the group axioms would fail.

function symmetricGroup(n: number): Group<permutation> | undefined {
	// TODO: error handling

	const permutations = listOfPermutations(n);
	if (!permutations) return undefined;

	return new Group<permutation>({
		set: new SetWithEquality(permutations, equalTuples),
		unit: interval(n),
		inverse: (a) =>
			interval(n).map((y) => a.findIndex((_y) => _y === y)),
		compose: (a, b) => b.map((y) => a[y]),
	});
}

Let me explain this a bit more:

The unit is the array , which is just the interval we implemented before.

The inverse of a permutation is the permutation that maps a number to the (unique) number with . Since we are working with arrays, is just the index of inside of the array .

The composition is defined by . This means that the array corresponding to results from the array for by applying to all of its entries, i.e., by mapping it via .

Let us test that behaves as we expect.

const S3 = symmetricGroup(3)!;
console.assert(S3.isGroup);
console.assert(!S3.isCommutative);
console.assert(S3.order === 6);
console.assert(S3.set.equal(S3.inverse([1, 2, 0]), [2, 0, 1]));

Let's not forget the error handling:

if (n < 0) {
	console.error(
		"Error: Only non-negative numbers are allowed for S_n",
	);
	return undefined;
}
if (n != Math.ceil(n)) {
	console.error("Error: Only whole numbers are allowed for S_n");
	return undefined;
}

Klein Four-Group

There is a group that has exactly four elements such that (we write the group composition as multiplication here)

is the unit
every element is inverse to itself (, etc.)

So when multiplying two distinct non-units, the result is always the other of the three elements.

This is called the Klein Four-Group, named after the mathematician Felix Klein. Let's implement it in our code!

const KleinFourGroup = new Group<string>({
	set: new SetWithEquality(["e", "a", "b", "c"]),
	unit: "e",
	inverse: (x) => x,
	compose: (x, y) => {
		if (x === "e") return y;
		if (y === "e") return x;
		if (x === y) return "e";
		return ["a", "b", "c"].find((u) => u !== x && u !== y)!;
	},
});

Notice that we have to tell TypeScript that the result of the find method is not undefined, using the ! operator. Otherwise, it will complain.

Let us test our implementation:

console.assert(KleinFourGroup.isGroup);
console.assert(KleinFourGroup.order === 4);
console.assert(KleinFourGroup.isCommutative);
console.assert(KleinFourGroup.compose("a", "b") === "c");

Groups of matrices

This example requires some prior knowledge of matrices and linear algebra.

If is a field (or even just a commutative ring) and is a non-negative integer, there is a group of invertible matrices over of size , called the general linear group.

In this section, we will implement the special case when and is the field with two elements, and indicate how it can be generalized.

Implementation

The modulo operator % in JavaScript does not behave correctly (from a mathematician's point of view), since -1 % 2 = -1. It should be 1. We need to redefine it.

function mod(a: number, r: number) {
	return ((a % r) + r) % r;
}

In JavaScript, matrices can be modeled with two-dimensional arrays. The matrices here have only as entries. We filter out the invertible matrices by the condition that the determinant is non-zero (modulo ). We use the squareOfArray utility function from Part 1.

type matrix = number[][];

const matrices: matrix[] = squareOfArray(squareOfArray(interval(2)));

const invertibleMatrices: matrix[] = matrices.filter(
	([[a, b], [c, d]]) => mod(a * d - b * c, 2) !== 0,
);

Next, we have to define the correct notion of equality for matrices.

function equalMatrices<T>(a: T[][], b: T[][]): boolean {
	return (
		a.length === b.length &&
		a.every((_, index) => equalTuples(a[index], b[index]))
	);
}

Now we can define the group of invertible matrices. The unit element is the unit matrix. The formula for the inverse of a matrix is a little bit easier since, here, the determinant is always . For composition, we use matrix multiplication modulo .

const GL2_F2 = new Group<matrix>({
	set: new SetWithEquality(invertibleMatrices, equalMatrices),
	unit: [
		[1, 0],
		[0, 1],
	],
	inverse: ([[a, b], [c, d]]) => [
		[mod(d, 2), mod(-b, 2)],
		[mod(-c, 2), mod(a, 2)],
	],
	compose: ([[a, b], [c, d]], [[p, q], [r, s]]) => [
		[mod(a * p + b * r, 2), mod(a * q + b * s, 2)],
		[mod(c * p + d * r, 2), mod(c * q + d * s, 2)],
	],
});

As always, let us test this implementation:

console.assert(GL2_F2.isGroup);
console.assert(GL2_F2.order === 6);
console.assert(!GL2_F2.isCommutative);

Generalization

This example can be extended to a much more general construction. It is possible to define a generic class CommRing<X> for commutative rings in TypeScript. The interface looks like this:

interface CommRingData<X> {
	set: SetWithEquality<X>;
	zero: X;
	one: X;
	addition: (a: X, b: X) => X;
	inverse: (a: X) => X;
	multiplication: (a: X, b: X) => X;
}

The general linear group will be a function of type:

function GL<X>(n: number, R: CommRing<X>): Group<X>;

Conclusion

This part was about implementing more concrete examples of finite groups within TypeScript. In the next parts, we will investigate how more interesting groups can be constructed from simpler ones, and how groups can be compared with each other.

→ Link to Part 3

Group theory in TypeScript (Part 2)